LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



016 095 049 3 



INDEX 



52s 



Frost, 108. 
Fruits, 27s, 276. 

Californian, 413. 

Floridan, 366. 

Mississippian, 364. 

tropical, 440, 465, 469, 478, 485. 
Fuel, 311-315- 
Furs, 291, 292. 

Galveston, 386, 168. 
Galveston hurricane, 207. 
Ganges plain, 493. 
Garden culture, 269. 
Gary, 370. 
GasolinjE, 315. 
Gauchos, 501. 
Geese, 283. 

Genesee River falls, loi 
Geneva, 463. 
Genoa, 466, 169. 
Geography, de&ned, 35. 
German Empire, 447. 
Germany, 429, 444-448. 

cities, 447. 

industries, 445-447. 

people, 429, 448. 

physiography, 444. 
Geysers, 133. 
Ghats, 493. 
Gibraltar, 438. 
Ginger, 487. 

Giraffe, 247, 248, 251, 252. 
Glacial drift, 116, 1 19-123. 

economic relations of, 122. 
Glacial Drift plain of North America, 353. 
Glacial lakes, 125, 126. 
Glacial map of United States and Canada, 

120. 
Glacial plains, 49, 53. 
Glacial soils, 142. 
Glaciers, 11 2-1 23. 

Alpine, 113. 

continental, 11 7-1 23. 

valley, 113. 
Glasgow, 432, 99, 168. 
Glass, 299. 

Globular projection, 19. 
Gloversville, N. Y., 372. 
Gneiss, 38, 139. 
Goats, 280, 247, 250, 291. 
Gold, 302-303, 405-407, 414, 502, 510. 
Gorge, 86. 
Gradation, 72. 

by ground water, 132-135. 

by ice, 113-123. 



Gradation, by running water, 72-94. 

by standing water, 128. 

by winds, 135-138. 

economic relations of, 90. 
Grains, 271-274. 
Grand Canon, 85, 86, 98. 
Grand Rapids, Mich., 373. 
Granite, 38, 139. 

as building stone, 299. 
Grape, 276. 

Grassland, 229, 236-239. 
Gravel, 143. 
Gravity, 33. 
Greasewood, 392. 
Great American Desert, 394, 397. 
Great Basin, 349. 
Great Britain, 429-438, 313. 
Great Lakes, 103, 125. 
Great Salt Lake, 350. 
Greater Antilles, 485, 487. 
Greece, 429, 472. 
Green corn, 361. 

Greenland, 29, 117, 164, 223, 512. 
Greenland plateau, 342. 
Greenland province, 339, 512-515. 
Grenoble, 441. 
Ground, defined, 36. 
Ground sea, 132. 
Ground water, 132. 

economic relations of, 134. 

gradation by, 132-135. 
Guanaco, 282. 
Guano, 304. 
Guiana, 490. 
Guinea fowl, 283. 
Gulf Stream, 156. 
Gullying, 84, 148. 
Gums, 307. 

Hachured maps, 40. 
Hailstones, 198. 
Haiti, 487- 
Halifax, 438. 
Hamburg, 447, 169. 
Hanging valleys, 116. 
Harbors, 167-171. 

artificial, 169. 
Havana, 487. 
Havre, 439. 
Hawaiian Islands, 496. 
Heat (see Temperature). 
Heat, earth's, as source of power, 317. 
Heat, use by man, 308. 
Heat belts, 177. 
Heat equator, 212. 



526 



INDEX 



Heat from sun, 32, 34. 

distribution of, 175. 
Hemlock Lake, 126. 
Hemp, 337, 452. 
Herbivorous animals, 247. 
Herding, 277. 

in the Alps, 462. 

in Argentina and Uruguay, 501. 

in Australia, 418, 503. 

in Caribbean lands, 485. 

in France, 440. 

in the llanos, 490. 

in Russia, 452. 

in Turkestan, 399. 

in the United States, 360, 393-394, 402, 
413- 
Hides, 336, 399, 452, 499, SOI. 
Highlands, defined, 53. 
High Plains, 53, 54, 352, 391. 
Highs, 204. 
Hills, 59- 
Hinterland, 384. 
Hippopotamus, 247, 248, 252. 
Hoang River, 473, 104. 
Hoe culture, 269. 
Hog, 247, 281. 
Holland, 448-450. 
people of, 450. 
Hollows, defined, 63. 
Hongkong, 438, 476. 
Hook, 129. 

Hops, 434. 440, 445. 456. 
Horses, 247, 250, 280, 310. 
Horseshoe lake, no. 
Hot springs, 133. 
Houses, 292, 293, 399, 401, 402. 
Hudson River, 170, 375. 
Hull, 434. 

Human economies, map, 268. 
Human life (see Man), 35, 333. 
Human species, 255-262. 
Humidity, 193. 
Humus, 36, 144. 
Hungary, 455, 456, 458. 
Hunting, 268, 269. 
Hurricanes, 207. 
Hydrosphere, 9. 

Iberian Peninsula, 469, 

Ice, gradation by, 1 13-123. 

Icebergs, 115, 512. 

Ice caps, 117. 

Ice deserts, 242. 

Iceland, 164. 

Ice sheets, 117-123. 



Igloo, 293, 514. 
Igneous rock, 38. 

soils from, 139. 
Imperial Valley, 404. 
India, 493-496, 148. 

people of, 494. 
Indianapolis, 372, 378. 
Indian Ocean, 151. 
Indians (Americans), 257, 259-267. 

in Canada, 508, 509. 

in Me.Kico, 481, 484, 485. 

in South America, 399, 491. 

in the United States, 359, 393, 401. 
Indigo, 307, 496. 

Indo- African realm of animals, 251. 
Indo-China, 495. 
Indo-Chinese province, 335. 
Insects, 24s, 246. 

domesticated, 283, 284. 
Insolation, 266. 

Intemperate climate, 181, 225. 
Interior plain of Europe, 425. 
Interior plains of North America, 351-353. 
Interior provinces, 338, 391-399, 405-408. 
Interior type of climate, 225. 
Intermediate plants, 228. 
Interment Plateaus, 348. 
Intermont valley, 62. 
International date line, 16. 
Intertropical provinces, 335. 
Ireland, 437. 

Iron, 299-301, 369-370, 433. 446. 
Irrigation, 102, 104, 148, 402, 405. 
Islands, 31. 

life on, 254. 
Isobars, 184. 

maps, 186, 187. 
Isotherms, 177. 

maps, 176, 178, 179. 
Italy, 429, 463-468. 

industries, 465-467. 

irrigation, 465, 148. 

people, 468, 419-420. 

physiography, 463. 
Ivory, 335. 498. 

Jackson, Mich., 373. 
Jamaica, 438, 487. 
Japan, 477-480, 220. 
Japanese people, 480. 
Java, 496. 
Jetties, 168. 
Joliet, 370. 
Juneau, 505. 
Jute, 494- 



INDEX 



527 



Kalahari desert, 52, 410. 

Kalahari province, 336, 410. 

Karnes, 121. 

Kangaroo, 253, 254. 

Kansas City, 3go, 372. 

Kayak, 513. 

Kerosene, 315. 

Key West, 374. 377- 

Khirghiz, 399. 

Kiel, 447. 

Kiniherley, 502. 

Klondike gold field, 510. 

Knots, mountain, 58, 343. 

Kobe, 470. 

Kongo province, 335, 497. 

Kopjes, 410. 

Korea, 473, 478, 480, 220. 

Kyoto, 480. 

Labor supply, 310. 

Lac, 307. 

Lacustrine plain, 49. 

Lagoon, i2q, 130. 

Lagoon harbors, 168. 

Lake district of England, 433. 

Lake plains, 49. 

Lake ports, 169. 

Lakes, 124-128. 

Alpine, 126. 

economic relations of, 128. 

effects on a river, 103. 

glacial, 118, 125, 126. 

horseshoe, no. 

life history of, 127, 128. 

navigation of, 103. 

volcanic, 127. 
Land (see Continents, Islands, Gradation, 
etc.), 36-72. 

height of, 22, 24, 28-31. 

variations of area, 24-25. 
Land and water hemispheres, 25-26. 
Land forms, 41. 

Land masses, arrangement of, 26. 
Landslide, 75. 
Lapps, 512. 
Laterite, 145. 
Latitude, 10, 11. 
Laurentian lakes, 125 
Laurentian peneplain, 45, 119, 341. 
Lauterbrunnen, 114. 
Lava, 38, 64. 
Lava soils, 140. 
Lead, 301. 
Leadville, 407. 
Leather, 292. 



Leeds, 433. 

Leicester, 433. 

Lemons, 276, 366, 413, 465. 

Lesser Antilles, 485, 488. 

Levant, 460. 

Levees, no, in, 465. 

Liege, 444. 

Life, human (see Man), 35, 333. 

Life on the earth (see Plants, Animals, Man), 

33, 34. 35. 333 
Light, artificial, 309. 
Light from sun, distribution of, 175. 
Lignite, 312. 
Lille, 441. 
Limestone, 37. 

as building stone, 299. 
Limestone soils, 140. 
Limoges, 441. 
Linen, 290. 
Linseed oil, 291. 
Lion, 247, 248. 
Lisbon, 470. 
Lithosphere, 9. 
Liverpool, 433. 

water supply, 99. 
Llama, 252, 282, 491. 
Llanos, 237, 490. 
Loaded stream, 79. 
Loams, 144. 
Locks, 432. 
Loess soils, 144. 
Lofoden Islands, 507. 
London, 434, 169. 

water supply, 99. 
Longitude, 10, n, 16. 
"Long trail," 393. 
Los Angeles, 417. 

water supply, 99. 
Louisville, 374. 
Lowlands, 41-53. 
Lows, 204. 
Lugano, Lake, 126. 
Lumber, 294. 
Lumbering, 296. 

in Canada, 509. 

in Germany, 445. 

on Pacific coast, 413. 
Lyons, 441. 
Lyttleton, 504. 

Macaroni, 465. 
Mackenzie plain. 352. 
Mackenzie River. 352. 
McKinley, Mt., 347. 
Madagascar province, 335, 49g. 



528 



INDEX 



Madras, 495- 

Madrid, 470- 

Mahogany, 296. 

Maine coast, map. 165. 

Maize (see Corn), 272. 

Malaga, 470. 

Malay province, 335, 496« 

Malta, 438. 

Mammals, 247. 

Man, 255-262. 

as an animal, 255. 

enemies of, 256. 

food supply of, 266. 

influence of environment, 333. 

life, 35. 333- 

varieties and races, 256-262. 
Man power, 309, 321. 
Manchester, 433, 169. 

water supply, 99. 
Manchuria, 475, 480, 220. 
Manchurian province, 337, 473-480. 
Mango, 276. 
Manioc, 269, 274, 492. 
Mantle rock, de6ned, 36. 

formation of, 72. 

movement of, 74-76. 

transportation of, 78. 
Manufacture, 318-320. 

conditions of, 318. 

in Austria-Hungary. 456. 

in the British Isles, 432, 433, 437, 438. 

in China, 475, 477- 

in France, 441. 

in Germany, 446. 

in Italy, 465. 

in Japan, 479. 

in Mexico, 482, 483. 

in Norway, 507. 

in Russia, 452. 

in Switzerland, 463. 

in the United States. 370-374, 382. 
Manzanillo, 483. 
Maoris, 504. 
Maps, 18-21. 

contoured, 39. 

list of, 536. 

natural, 331. 

relief, 39. 
Map projections, i8-2i. 
Map scales, 21. 
Marble, 299. 
Marine animals, 243. 
Mari, 128. 
Marseilles, 439, 169. 
Marshes, 95, j 24-1 28. 



Mat^. 28s, 286. 

Mature drainage, 95. 

Maturely dissected land, 88. 

Maturity of streams and valleys, 88, 91. 

Mauritius, 438. 

Medicines, 287-288. 

Mediterranean climate, 218, 426. 

Mediterranean province, 336, 427, 428, 459- 

472. 
Mediterranean region, 425. 
Mediterranean Sea, 166. 
Mediterranean type of white race, 260. 
Melbourne, 503. 
Melons, 366, 402, 410. 
Mercator's projection, 20. 
Mercury, 302. 
Meridians, 10, 11. 
Metals, 299-303. 

used in electric batteries, 317. 
Metamorphic rock, 38. 
Mexican plateau, 351. 
Mexican province, 335, 481-485. 
Mexican type of climate, 225. 
Mexico, 481-485, 54, 223. 
Mexico (city), 483. 
Migration, of animals, 249. 

of man, 256. 
Milan, 467. 
Milwaukee, 372. 
Mind sphere, 256. 
Mineral springs, 133. 
Mining, 294, 299-303, 312-314. 

economy, 294, 408. 

of coal, 312-314, 368. 

of copper, 301, 408. 

of gold, 302-303, 405-407, 410, 502, 510. 

of iron, 300, 369-370. 

of silver, 303, 405-407. 
Minneapolis, 389, 363, 372. 
Mississippi River, 105-111, 353. 

delta, 82, 168. 
Mississippian province, 337, 356-390. 

agriculture in, 360-366. 

cities, 370-390. 

importance of, 357. 

mining in, 367-370. 
Mississippian type of climate, 225, 353. 
Missouri River. 106. 
Mitchell, Mt., 345. 
Mohawk gap, 375. 
Moline, III., 373. 
Mollweide's projection, 20. 
Mongolian race, 257, 259. 
Monkeys, 252, 253. 
Monsoon forests, 231. 



INDEX 



529 



Monsoons, 102. 

Monterey, 482. 

Montevideo, 501. 

^[o^ths, 18. 

NFont IV'lec, eruption, 67. 

Montreal, 379. 

Moon, 17. 

cause of tides. 154, 155. 
Moose, 508. 
Moraines, marginal, 121. 

terminal, 116, iig, 121. 
Moravia, 455, 456. 
Mormons, 394, 403. 
Moscow, 453, 454. 
Mountains, 54-59. 

age of, 00, gi. 

economic relations of, 58. 
Mountain system, 54. 
Muck soils, 144. 
Mulberry, 283. 
Mules, 281. 
Miilhausen, 446. 
Munich, 445. 
Muskegs, 118. 
Musk ox, 250, 512, 508. 
Mustard, 284. 

Nagasaki, 479. 

Nancy, 441. 

Nantes, 439. 

Naples, 464, 467, 169. 

Narcotics, 285. 

Natural gas. 315. 368, 390. 

Natural map, 331. 

Natural provinces, 329-339. 

maps, 328-329, 358, 428, 474. 
Natural resources, 263-266, 326. 

utilization of, 265. 
Neap tide, 155. 
Netherlands. 429, 448-450. 
New England, manufactures, 370. 
New England plateau, 343. 
New England, water power, 371. 
Newfoundland, 343, 344. 
New Guinea, 30, 496. 
New Orleans, 386, 168, 374. 

water supply, 99. 
New World, 27. 
New York, 381-384, 170, 372. 

map, 171. 

water supply, 99. 
New Zealand, 503, 164, 221. 
New Zealand province, 337, 503. 
Niagara River, 92, 93, 94, 128. 
Nickel, 342. 



Night, 10, 14, 15. 
Nile River, 409, 104. 
Nimbus clouds, 197. 
Nitrate, 304. 
Nitrogen, 172, 173. 

sources of, 304. 
Nomadic life, 278. 
Nome, 349, 510. 
North .\merica, 26, 27, 29. 

climates of, 218-222, 354-357. 

coast of, 163-167. 

future use of land, 422. 

glaciation of, 117-123. 

natural provinces, countries, and products, 
356-423, 481-48S, 505-5 '5- 

physiographic provinces, 341-355. 

resources, 341. 
Northern and southern continents, 27. 
Northern realm of animals, 253. 
Norway, 507, 164. 
Norwegian province, 338, 507. 
Nottingham, 433. 
Nunatak Glacier, 115. 

Oaks, 295, 296. 

Oasis, 240. 

Oats, 271, 273, 364. 

Ocean currents, 156, 157. 

effect on climate, 156, 157. 

effect on isotherms, 177. 

map of, 160, 161. 
Oceanic basin, 24, 25. 
Oceanic climate, 151, 180, 220 
Oceanic islands, 31, 66. 
Oceans (see Sea). 

depth, 150. 

form, 150. 

temperature. 151, 156, 160, 161. 
Ohio River, 107, 108, 353. 
Oils, 306, 307. 
Old Faithful geyser, 133. 
Old World, 27 
Olive, 276. 
Omaha, 372. 
Onions, 270. 
Opium, 286, 287. 
Oporto, 470. 

Orange Free State, 501, 502. 
Oranges, 276, 366, 413, 440, 465, 485. 
Oregon province, 337, 412-417. 
Oregon trail, 394, 395. 
Oregon type of climate, 225, 220, 
Ores, 299. 

Orinoco province, 335, 490. 
Orizaba, 351. 



53° 



INDEX 



Orthographic projection, 19. 

Osaka, 479, 480. 
Ostriches, 252, 283, 502. 
Outcrop, defined, 37. 
Oxygen, 172, 173. 
Ozark plateau, 345-346, 370. 

Pacific Ocean (see Sea), 150, 159. 

coast, 163-165. 
Pacific ranges of North America, 347. 
Pack animals, 321. 
Palermo. 468. 
Palms, food supply, 267. 
Palouse country, 142. 
Pampas, 239, 500. 
Panama Canal, 486, 158. 
Papagos, 401. 
Paper, 297. 
Para, 492. 
Parallels, 10. 11. 
Paris, 442, 444. 

Patagonian province. 337, 399. 
Peaches, 276, 364, 366. 
Peafowl, 283. 
Pearls, 335. 
Pears, 276, 364, 440. 
Peat, 312. 
Peat soils, 144. 
Peneplain, 45, 88, 90. 
Penguin, 245. 
Pennine Range, 432. 
Peoria, 111., 372. 
Perth, 418. 
Peru, 411, 491, 54. 
Peruvian province, 336, 411. 
Petersburg, 374. 
Petrograd, 453. 454- 
Petroleum, 314, 315, 368, 452. 
Philadelphia, 384, 371, 372. 
Philippines, 496. 
Phosphorus, sources of, 305. 
Physiographic provinces, 69. 

maps, 70, 71, 340, 424. 

of Europe, 424. 

of North America, 34I-.55S- 
Physiographic regions, Brit. Is., 430, 432-434. 
Piedmont alluvial plain. 81. 
Piedmont Plateau, 345, 353-354- 
Pigeons, 283. 
Pigments, 306. 
Pikes Peak, 73, 346. 
Pilsen, 457. 
Pimento, 487. 
Pine, 294. 
Pipe, volcanic, 64. 



Pittsburgh, 389, 370. 
Plains, 41-53. 

alluvial, 45, 47-49. 53. 81-83. 

coastal, 44. 

economic relations of, 52. 

eolian, 49, 52, 53. 

flood, 49. 

glacial, 49, 55. 

lacustrine, 49. 

lake, 49. 

of accumulation or aggradation, 49, 52, 53 

of degradation, 45. 

peneplain, 45, 88, 90. 

structural, 44. 

wind-worn, 52. worn-down, 44, 53. 
Planet Deep, 24. 
Plantain, 276, 497. 
Plantation culture, 270. 
Plant regions, 228-242. 

map, 229. 
Plants. 226-242 

absorb carbon dioxide, 173. 

adaptation of. 226-228. 

as soil makers, 146. 

conditions of life, 33-35, 226. 

distribution of, 226-242. 

domestication of, 269. 

drouth plants, 228. 

effect of day and night, 14, 15. 

intermediate plants. 228. 

relation to man, 265. 

relation to temperature, 227. 

relation to water, 227, 228. 

salt plants. 228. 

water plants, 227. 
Plata province, 337, 500. 
Plateaus, 53. 

dissected, 58. 

economic relations of, 53. 
Platinum. 511, 452. 
Playfair's law, 88. 
Polar bear, 512. 513. 
Polar caps, 181, 185. 

climate of, 222, 225. 
Polar deserts, 240. 
Polar type of climate, 225. 
Polders. 448. 
Ponds. 124-128. 
Population of the world, 262. 

map, 261. 
Po River. 465. 
Porterage, 321. 
Portland, Ore., 417. 
Porto Rico, 487. 
Ports, 167-171. 



INDEX 



531 



Portsmouth, Eng., 434. 
Portugal, 429, 469-471. 
Potash, sources of, 305. 
Potatoes, 274. 
Pottery, 303. 
Poultrj', 283. 

Power, use by man, 309-317. 
Prague, 457. 458- 
Prairies, 220, 237. 
Prairie schooner, 395. 
Precipitation, 197, 209-216. 
Pressure of air, 181, 184, 188. 

distribution of, 188. 
Projections, map, 18-21. 
Prussia, 447. 
Psychosphere, 256. 
Pueblos, 401-402. 
Puget Sound, 348, 417. ■ 
Pulque, 285. 
Puys, 439. 
Pyrenees, 469. 

Quartz, 299. 

Queensland province, 337, 502. 

Queenstown, 437. 

Quinine, 288, 496. 

Racine, Wis., 373. 

Radium, 317. 

Railroads (see Transportation), 324, 516. 

in Russia, 453. 

in the .^Ips, 461. 

in the United States, 376-378, 396. 

in the world, 516. 
Rainfall, 209-216. 

laws of, 212-216. 

maps, 210-211, 214, 215. 
Rain gauge, 198. 
Ranches, 279, 394, 500. 
Rand, the, 502. 
Range of temperature, 180. 

map, 182. 
Ravine, 86. 
Reclamation Service of the United States, 

405, 4-4- 
Redwood, 294. 
Reefs, 157. 
Reindeer, 282, 512. 
Relative humidity, 193. 
Relief, defined, 41. 

principal features of. 31. 
Relief map of the world, 22, 23. 
Relief maps, 39. 
Residual soil, 139. 
Resins, 307. 



Revived streams, 90. 

Revolution, of earth, 11-13, 32. 

Rhine River, 446-449, 103. 

Rice, 271, 273, 366. 

Richmond, 374. 

Rift valley lowland of the British Isles, 432. 

Rift valleys, 64, 124. 

Riga, 453- 

River ports, 168. 

Rivers (see Streams). 

Roads, 322, 378. 

Rock, 36-39. 

disintegration of, 72. 

economic relations of, 39. 

products of disintegration, 139, 140. 
Rock sphere, 9. 

Rock waste (see Mantle rock), 72. 
Rockford, III., 373. 
Rocky Mountains, 346. 
Rodents, 247, 248. 
Rome, 467. 
Root crops, 274. 
Rotation, earth's, 10, 15, 33. 
Rotterdam, 449. 
Rouen, 441. 
Roumania, 429. 
Round inlets, 169. 
Royal Gorge, Colorado, 86. 
Rubber, 291. 
Rum, 285. 
Run-off, 77. 
Russia, 429, 451-455. 

industries, 452-453. 

people, 429, 454. 
Rye, 271, 273, 364. 

Sagebrush, 392. 

Sago, 335, 478. 

Sahara, 30. 

Saharan province, 336, 409. 

St. Etienne, 441. 

St. Joseph, 372. 

St. Lawrence River, 100, 103, 128, 374, 

380. 
St. Louis, 389, 372, 373. 

water supply, 99. 
St. Nazaire, 439. 
St. Paul, 389. 
St. Pierre, destroyed, 67. 
Sake, 285. 
Salmon, 413, 506. 
Saloniki, 472. 
Salt, 305, 306. 
Salt Lake trail, 394, 395. 
Salt plants, 228. 



532 



INDEX 



Salt River valley, 403, 404. 
Salton Sink, 350, 404. 
Sand, 143. 

erosion by, 136. 
Sandstone, 37, 140. 

as building stone, 299. 
San Francisco, 416. 
Santa Fe trail, 395. 
Santiago, 418. 
Santos, 490. 
Sao Paulo, 490. 
Sardines, 440. 
Sardinia, 464, 465. 
Saturation, 193. 
Savannah River, 104, 105. 
Savannas, 217, 236-239. 
Saxony, 446, 448. 
Scandinavian highland, 425. 
Schenectady, N. Y., 371. 
Scotch Highlands, 432, 
Scotland, 507, 164. 
Screes, defined, 75. 
Scrub, 234. 

Sea (see Oceans, Standing water, Waves), 
150-159- 

depth of, 22, 24, 150-151. 

economic relations of, 157. 

influence on man, 158. 

life in, 243-245. 

navigation of, 158. 

tides in, 153-155- 
Sea clifiFs, 130. 
Sea water, composition, 151. 

density of, 152. 

pressure of, 152. 

temperature, 151, 160, i6i. 
Seal, 245, 248, 512, 513, 515. 
Seasons, 11-15, 18, 32, ss- 
Seattle, 417. 
Sedentary soils, 139. 
Sediment, 76, 78-83. 

carried by air, 135, 136. 

glacial, 116. 
Sedimentary rocks, 37. 
Serbia, 429. 
Seville, 470. 
Sevres, 441. 
Shale, 37, 140. 
Shanghai, 476. 
Shasta, Mt., 65, 347, 415. 
Sheboygan, Wis., 373. 
Sheep, 247, 250, 279, 291, 394, SOI, 503. 
Sheffield, 433. 
Shelter, for man, 292. 
Ships, 324, 325 



Siam, 496. 

Siberian province, 338. 511. 

Sicily, 464, 465. 

Sierra Madre, 347, 35i 

Sierra Nevada, 64, 347, 415. 

Silesia, 455, 456, 458. 

Silk, 291, 441, 465, 475, 478. 

Silkworm, 283, 284, 291. 

Silt, 143- 

Silver, 302, 303, 405-407. 

Singapore, 438, 169. 

Sirocco, 464. 

Sisal, 484. 

Skerries, 131. 

Slate, 343. 

Snake River, 349. 

Snowflakes, 197. 

Snowshoes, 509. 

Soap, 307. 

Soda, 350, 372. 

Soils, 139-149. 

alluvial, 142. 

and population, 149. 

chemical constituents of, 145. 

colluvial, 140. 

composition of, 143. 

conservation of, 148. 

defined, 36, 139. 

derived from mountains, 59. 

derived from volcanoes, 67- 

eolian, 143. 

from igneous rocks, 139. 

glacial, 122, 142. 

lava, 140. 

limestone, 140. 

made by plants, 146. 

map, 141. 

result of transportation, 76. 

sedentary, 139. 

temperature of, 146. 

transported, 140. 

tropical, 144. 

types of 144. 
Soil wash, 95. 
Soil water, 147. 
Solstice, 14. 
Soo Canals, 374, 375. 
South Africa, 218, 239. 
South .African province, 337, 501. 
South America, 26, 27, 29. 

coasts of, 162, 163, 167. 

provinces, countries, and products, 399. 
411, 417, 489-402, 500, 508. 
South .American realm of animals, 252, 
Southampton, 434. 



INDEX 



533 



South Bend, Ind., 373. 

Southeast lowland of Encland, 434. 

Southern Ocean, 150. 

Southern uplands of the British Isles, 432. 

Southwest American province, 338, 508. 

Southwest Australia, 21S. 

Southwest Australian province, 336, 418. 

Spain, 429, 469-471. 

Sphinx, eroded, 73. 

Spices, 284, 450, 498. 

Spit, 129. 

Springfield, O., 373. 

Springs, mineral, 133. 

Spring tide, 155. 

Spruce, 23s, 295. 

Stacks, 131. 

Standard time, 16. 

Standing water, 124-131. 

economic relations of, 131. 

gradation by, 128. 
Steam engine, 311. 
Steel, 300. 

Steppes, 54, 237, 238. 
Stereographic projection, 19, 
Stettin, 447. 
Stimulants, 285. 
Stockholm, 450. 
Stone, building, 298. 
Storms, ig8, 207-209. 
Strata, defined, 37. 
Stratus clouds, 197. 
Streams, age of, 88. 

and relief, 88. 

braided, 106. 

course of, 76-78, 86-88. 

crookedness of, 83, 84, no. 

economic relations of, 95-111. 

cfiect of lakes on, 103. 

floods in, 103, 104, no. 

loaded, 79. 

navigation of, 103, 106-111. 

relation of valleys to, 88. 

revived, 90. 

routes of travel and transportation, 100. 

scenerj', 98. 

source of food supply, 100. 

source of water supply, 99. 

sources of, 77. 

speed of, 79. 

transportation of mantle rock, 76, 78-83. 

utilization of, 103-111. 

water power of, loi. 
Stream system, 77, 78. 
Structural plains, 44, 
Sturgeon, 453. 



Substratum, 265, 266. 

Subtropical and warm temjjerate provinces. 

Subtropical zones, i8r, 185. 

climate of, 218, 225. 
Sudan, 410. 
Suez, 438. 

Suez Canal, 158, 324. 
Sugar beets, 274, 405. 
Sugar cane, 275. 
Sulphur, 306. 
Sun, 10-14, 34- 

as direct source of power, 317. 

cause of tides, 155. 

economic relations, 14. 

energy from, 309. 
Superior district, 369. 
Swansea, 434. 
Sweden, 450, 511. 
Sweet potato, 274, 485. 
Swine, 247, 281. 
Switzerland, 429, 462-463. 

industries, 462. 

people, 463. 
Sydney, 503. 

Tacoma, 417. 

Taghanic Falls, 98, 

Talus, defined, 75. 

Tampa, 374. 

Tampico, 483. 

Tanana River, 510. 

Tapioca, 274. 

Tapir, 252, 253. 

Taro, 274. 

Tasmania, 30, 504. 

Tea, 28s, 2S6. 

Technical materials, 304-307. 

Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 169, 484. 

Temperate and intemperate provinces, 337, 

Temperate dry forest, 234-236. 

Temperate summer forest, 232. 

Temperate zones, 181, 185. 

climate of, 218, 225. 
Temperature, 174-185. 

effect of clouds, 174. 

heat belts, 177. 

range of, 180, 182. 
Temperature belts, 181. 

map, 185. 
Temperature zones, 180, 181. 

map, 183. 
Terminal moraines, 116, 119, 
Terre Haute, Ind., 372. 
Textiles, 289. 



534 



INDEX 



Thorn forest, 234. 

Thorn scrub, 234. 

Thunderstorms, 209. 

Tibet, 54. 

Tidal power, 317. 

Tides, 153-155- 

Tierra del Fuego, 508. 

Timber, 294. 

Timber line, defined, 58. 

Tin, 301. 

Titicaca, Lake, 490. 

Tobacco, 286, 365. 

Toddy, 285. 

Tokyo, 480. 

Toledo, 370, 372. 

Tools, 303, 304. 

Tornadoes, 208. 

Toronto, 386. 

Trade (see Commerce), 320, 325, 326. 

Trade winds, igo. 

relation to rainfall, 213. 
Tramontana, 465. 
Transportation of freight, 100, 320-325. 

in Africa, 498, 499. 

in Alaska, 506, 507. 

in China, 475. 

in deserts, 409. 

in France, 442. 

in Germany, 446. 

in Holland, 449. 

in India, 494. 

in Italy, 466. 

in Japan, 479. 

in Mexico, 482, 483. 

in northern Canada, 509. 

in Russia, 453. 

in South America, 491, 501. 

in the United States, 374-378, 3Q4-397. 
409. 
Transportation of sediment, by glaciers, 
115-116. 

by streams, 75, 76, 78. 

by winds, 135, 136. 
Transported soils, 140. 
Transvaal, 501, 502, 239. 
Transylvania, 455, 457. 
Trapping, 268, 269. 
Tributaries, 76. 
Trieste, 456, 457, 458. 
Tropical calms, igo. 
Tropical dry forest, 233. 
Tropical rain forest, 229. 
Tropical soils, 144. 
Troy, N. Y., 372. 
Tuodras, 223, 241, 242, 511. 



Tunis, 443. 

Tunnels, 323, 324, 461. 

Turin, 467. 

Turkey (bird), 283, 359. 

Turkey (country), 429. 

Turkish Empire, 471. 

Turpentine, 307. 

Typhoons, 208. 

Undertow, 131, 153. 

United States, agriculture in, 360-366, 397. 
403, 413- 

cities of, 380-390, 407, 416-417. 

climates of, 218-220, 358, 391, 400, 412, 

415- 

commerce in, 378-390, 415-417. 

herding in, 360, 393-394. 402, 413- 

manufacturing in, 370-374. 

mining in, 367-370, 405-408, 414. 

natural provinces, 356-418. 

people of, 419-423, 358, 393. 

physical features (see Streams, Plains, 
Beaches, etc.). 

population map of, 421. 

transportation in, 374-378, 394-397, 409- 
United States Geological Survey maps, 39. 
Uplands, 53. 
Ural Mountains, 511. 
Uruguay, 500-501, 221. 

Valencia, 470. 
Valenciennes, 441. 
Valleys, 62. 

age of, 88. 

drowned, 103, 162. 

forms of, 84-88, 77. 

glaciated, 114, 115, 116, 117. 

hanging, 116. 

relation to streams, 88. 

upper, middle, and lower parts of, 86. 
Vancouver, 348. 
Vapor, 172, 174, 193, 194. 

condensation of, 194, 195. 
Vegetable growing, 270. 
Vehicles, 322. 
Veldt, 239. 
Venezuela, 237, 490. 
Venice, 466, 468, 168. 
Vera Cruz, 483. 
Verdun, 441. 
Vesuvius, Mt., 464. 
Victoria (city), Hongkong, 476. 
Vicunas, 282, 491. 
Vienna, 457. 
Vinegar, 284. 



INDKX 



535 



Vineyards, 276, 364, 465. 
Virginia City, 406. 
Volcanic cone, 64. 
Volcanic lakes, 127. 
Volcanic lands, 64-68. 
Volcanoes, 64-68. 

economic relations of, 67. 

map, 68. 
Volga River, 451, 453. 

Walrus. 245, 512, 513. 
Warsaw, 453, 454. 
Wasatch Mountains, 350, 351. 
Washington, 385. 
Washington, Mt., 343- 
Washoe District, 405-407. 
Water (see Streams, Sea, Lakes, Standing 
water. Rainfall, etc.), 9, 24-26. 

animals living in, 243-245. 

circulation of, 33, 34. 

forms of, 32. 

needed by plants, 147. 

transportation of freight by, 324. 
Water bulTalo, 279. 
Waterfalls, 93. 

economic relations of, 94. 
Water gaps, 345, 60. 
Water plants, 227. 

Water power, 59, 94, loi, 104. 105, 315-317. 
Water sphere, 9. 
Water supply of cities, 98, 99. 
Water table, 132, 147. 
Water vapor. 172. 174, 193, i94- 

condensation of, 194, 195. 
Waterways, 325. 
Watkins Glen, 96. 
Wave power, 317. 
Waves, description of, 152. 

gradation by, 130. 

work of, 153. 
Weather Bureau, 199, 206. 
Weathering, 72. 
Weather maps, 199. 
Weather maps for January, 28-31, 1909, 

200, 202, 203, 205. 
Welland Canal, 375. 
Wellington, 504. 
Wells. 134 

Welsh mountains, 433 
West coast climates, 220. 
Westerly winds, 190. 
Western province of Europe, 425. 



West European province, 337, 427-450- 

Westminster, 435. 

Whales, 245, 306-307. 

Wheat, 271, 362-363, SOI. 

Whisky, 285. 

White Mountains, 58, 343. 

Whitney, Mt., 347. 

Wilmington, Del., 371. 

Wind belts, 189. 

Wind power, 311. 

Winds, 184-192. 

cyclones and anticyclones, 189, 201 

economic relations of, 192. 

effect on isotherms, 177. 

erosion by, 136. 

gradation by, 135-138. 

laws of, 184, 188-192. 

maps of, 186, 187, 191. 

tornadoes, 208. 

wind-worn plain, 52. 
Wines, 276, 285, 441, 470. 
Winnipeg, 390. 
Wood, 294, 3n 
Woodland, 228. 

dry, 233-236. 

wet, 229-233. 
Wool, 280, 291. 
World economy, 32-35- 
Worn-down plains, 44, 53. 

Yak, 279, 399. 

Yam, 267, 269, 274, 485. 

Yangtze River, 475, 104. 

Year, 17. 

Yellowstone Park, 132, 346. 

Yezo, 478. 

Yokohama, 479. 

Yosemite Valley, 97, 98. 

Young stream, 87. 

Youth of land forms, 88-91. 

Yucatan, 354, 484. 

Yucca, 392, 402. 

Yukon plateau, 348, 510. 

Yuma project, 404. 

Zambezi River, 93, 94, 104. 

Zebra, 248, 251, 252. 

Zebu, 279. 

Zinc, 301. 

Zones of temperature, 180, 181. 

map, 183. 
Zurich, 463. 



INDEX OF REFERENCE MAPS 

Page 

Relief of Earth Crust 22-23 

Volcanoes and Earthquake Areas 68 

Physiographic Provinces 70-71 

Soils 141 

Mean Annual Surface Temperatures, Ocean Currents, and Coast Lines . . i6o-i6i 

Mean Annual Isotherms 176 

Isotherms for July 1 78 

Isotherms for January 1 79 

Annual Range of Average Monthly Temperature 182 

Temperature Zones 183 

Temperature Belts 185 

Isobars and Winds in July 186 

Isobars and Winds in January 187 

Ocean Winds 191 

Weather Maps, January 28-31, 1909 200, 202, 203, 205 

Mean Annual Rainfall 210-211 

Summer Rainfall 214 

Winter Rainfall 215 

Climatic Regions 224 

Plant Regions 230 

Density of Population 261 

Human Economies 269 

Natural Provinces 328-329, 358, 428, 474 

Physiographic Provinces of North America 340 

Climatic maps of North America 354, 357 

Physiographic Provinces of Europe 424 

Climatic maps of Europe 426, 427 

CONTOUR MAPS (U. S. G. S.) 

Coastal plain, drowned valley, barrier beach, and lagoon. New Jersey 42-43 

Worn-down plain, Georgia 46 

Alluvial plain, Wabash River, Indiana 47 

Glacial plain and cliff coast, Illinois 5° 

Portion of the High Plains, Colorado 51 

A portion of the Sierra Nevada, California 55 

Dissected plateau and cliff coast, California 57 

Appalachian ridges and water gap, Pennsylvania 60 

Hills of accumulation, with basins, Wisconsin 61 

A volcanic cone; Mt. Shasta, California 65 

Grand Canon of the Colorado, Arizona 85 

Maturely dissected plateau. West Virginia 89 

Niagara Falls and Gorge 92 

536 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF 

INDIANA 



BY 



CHARLES REDWAY DRYER, F.G.S.A., F.R.G.S. 

PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY, INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
AUTHOR OK "LESSONS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY" 



Suppfement to 
Dryer s High School Geography 




Copyright, IQI3, IQl(), l>y American Book Company 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 



Cf,Cf 




I.oTiL'itude 87 West 



from 80 Gcciiiwich 



Fig. 371 

©Ci.A529a88 



^^ 




THE GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA 

Position. — The geographical character of Indiana is largely 
deterniined by its central position. ( i ) It lies nearly midway 
between the Laiirentian peneplain and the Gulf coastal plain, 
and between the Atlantic coast and the High Plains (Fig. 
302). Although an inland area about 600 miles from the sea, 
it is equally distant from the continental interior. (2) It is 
included in the Glacial Drift plain, but about one sixth of it 
escaped giaciation. To these facts are due a large area of 
smooth surface and productive soil and a smaller area of rock 
exposure and hilly topography. (3) It lies in the midst of the 
so-called north temperate zone and of the Mississippian cli- 
matic region, which has a rainfall between 20 and 60 inches 
(Figs. 164, 188, 305, 306). This gives it a long, moist grow- 
ing season and makes it a part of the Atlantic provinces of 
agriculture and dense population (p. 356 and Figs. 236, 239, 
308). (4) It is on the boundary between summer forest and 
prairie (Fig. 192), and covers a portion of the eastern interior 
coal field (Fig. 310), which adds greatly to its resources for 
manufacture. (5) It spans the space between Lake Alichigan 
and the Ohio River, and is accessible by the waterways of the 
St. Lawrence and Mississippi systems (pp. 103, 105-111, 374- 
375). All the great trunk lines of railroad between the Atlan- 
tic seaboard and the Middle West are obliged to cross Indiana 
(Figs. 315, 316), which thus plays the part of a bridge or gap 
connecting the east and the west. The center of population of 
the L'nited States has been located in Indiana for thirty years 

(Fig- 313)- 

On account of its medial position, Indiana is not a land of 

contrasts and extremes, yet possesses in a moderate degree all 



SUPPLEMENT 





GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA V 

the characteristics of iho Mississippian natural province which 
surrounds it (Fig. 307 and pp. 357-359). 

Indiana is too much in the way to be isolated, anti([uated, or 
one-sided, yet is not in danger of being swamped Ijy foreign 
elements. If it should ever cease to be the home of a prosper- 
ous community of enlightened and happy people, the event 
will not be due to adverse geographic position or environment. 

Topography. —The highest ground in Indiana is the smooth 
uphuul of southern Randolph county, where the elevation 
reaches nearly 1300 feet above the sea. From this the surface 
of the state slopes gently to the northwest, west, southwest, 
and south, as is shown by the courses of the principal rivers. 
In the northeast corner of the state a secondary height of land, 
with hilltops nearly 1200 feet above the sea, sends drainage to 
the Maumee, Wabash, and Illinois rivers and Lake Michigan. 
A small area above 11 00 feet in Brown county has little in- 
lluence on the drainage. About four fifths of the state lies 
between 500 and 1000 feet, and about one eighth lies below 
500 feet. About 200 square miles at the northwest corner are 
occupied by Lake Michigan at an elevation of 581 feet. The 
lowest point, 313 feet, is at the southwest corner. The average 
elevation of the state is 700 feet. 

Structure.— The bed-rock foundations of Indiana consist 
of numerous strata of shale, sandstone, and limestone several 
thousand feet thick. They ha\e never been violently disturbed 
or broken, but have been gently uplifted in the form of a broad, 
Hat arch, the crest of which, extending northward from Cin- 
cinnati and cur\ing towards Chicago, has been remo\ed by 
erosion. Consequently the rocks of Indiana now dip gently 
awav from the crest of the arch to the southwest and north- 
east and their beveled edges outcrop on the surface in long, 
narrow belts, extending north and south (Fig. 373). 

The surface of Indiana has probably been above the sea ever 
since the coal period. During these millions of years it was carved 
by weather and stream erosion into a complex system of branching 
vallevs with corresponding ridges between. At a comparatively re- 




Physiographic 
MAP OF 

INDIANA 



^forainea, [r^acial elat/, sand and griivei 
(iliicuit clay plains. 
Oilier glacial clay and lota§ 
Ulitcini lake ih'insits. 
Allunal ami aaml plains. 
Unt/larm(al, sotl .frum 
undcrb/ing rocks. 
SCALE OF MILES 



10 'JU 30 4U I 'M 



l...n;ii,„l,. S7 West 



rio.n SG Crwnwicb 



Fig- 374 
VI 



GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA vii 

cent period Indiana has been invaded by at least two great ice sheets 
from the nortli. The first covere<l the whole state except the area 
left uiicolored on the map, p. vi (compare with Figs, no, 113). The 
drift sheet which it deposited is thin and somewhat peculiar in char- 
acter. The second ice sheet was much more vigorous and enduring, 
and changed the original surface of the country completely. It 
advanced in three separate lobes, which were not all in existence at 
the same time. The first came from the basin of Lake Michigan, and 
occupied northeastern Illinois and an irregular strip along the west- 
ern borders of Indiana as far south as Parke, Putnam, and Morgan 
counties. A narrow and feeble lobe of ice from Saginaw Bay ex- 
tended into northern Indiana to Fulton county. Last of all, an im- 
mense mass of ice from the basins of Lakes Huron and Erie spread 
southwestward across Michigan, Ohio, and central Indiana to the 
morainic line shown on the map extending from Benton county to 
Bartholomew, Fayette, and Franklin counties. These later ice lobes 
deposited a much thicker sheet of drift than the earlier ones, and in 
melting left many morainic ridges. The old valleys were filled and 
the former rough surface was buried and plastered over with a heavy 
coat of clay, sand, and gravel. Thus the northern two thirds of the 
state was converted into a smooth plain, where the contour lines are 
far apart and make large curves, showing gentle slopes and sluggish 
drainage (Figs. 34, 35, 372). 

In the southern third of the state the alternating belts of harder 
and softer rock determine a rugged and broken surface. The con- 
tour lines are crowded and crooked, showing steeper slopes and more 
rapid drainage. 

Physiographic Regions. —Indiana is naturally divided into 
three physiuijra[)hic regions: i. SontJicni Indiana. 2. The 
Central Drift Plain. 3. The Northern Moraine and Lake 
Region. 

Southern Indiana is not all hilly, but its surface is gener- 
ally more rugged than that of the rest of the state. This is 
because the glacial drift is either absent or too thin to mask 
the bed-rock surface. It presents from east to west a succes- 
sion of lowlands and uplands bounded by relatively steep 
slopes or escarpments formed by the outcropping edges of the 
harder strata (p. vi). 

The Cincinnati Lowland. — Along the eastern border of the state a 
belt of soft shales from 20 to 30 miles wide forms a lowland which 



SUPPLEMENT 




Fig. 375.— Upland, Martin county. 



extends from the Ohio River to Wayne county. It slopes from 900 
or 1000 feet above sea level on the north and west to 600 or 800 feet 
at the edge of the Ohio bluffs. 

The Limestone escarpment, a ridge with a gentle slope to the west 
and a steeper slope to the east, extends from the Ohio near Madison 
northward about 40 miles and separates the Cincinnati Lowland from 
the New Albany Lowland. 

The New Albany Lowland, due to erosion of the soft shales which 
overlie the limestones, extends from New Albany to Shelby and Rush 
counties. Its width on the Ohio is only 10 miles, but in the northern 
portion more than 40. Its surface slopes westward from 800 or 900 
feet at the edge of the Limestone escarpment to less than 600 at the 
foot of the Knobstone escarpment on the west. 

TJie Knobstone escarpment is the most prominent topographical 
feature in Southern Indiana. It is the eastern edge of an upland 
which falls abruptly 300 to 600 feet. Its bold, irregular face may be 
traced from the Ohio northward to Johnson county. It is due to a 
great thickness of easily eroded shales capped by more resistant 
strata of sandstone. In Floyd, Clark, Scott, Washington, and Jack- 
son counties, the steep, dissected face of the escarpment, with the de- 
tached fragments of the upland outlying on the east, are known as "the 
Knobs," the Guinea and Silver hills. North of the East White River 
the escarpment is less steep and irregular, and is called "the Hills." 

The Southern Upland is bounded on the east by the Knobstone 



GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA ix 

escarpment, and on the west by a descent almost as abrupt but about 
half as hi^h, formed by a bed of sandstone. Most of the surface 
has been maturely dissected by streams into a complex system of 
valleys, irregular ridges, and isolated knobs. The hills are fragments 
of the original plain left by the cutting out of the valleys between, 
and the large streams are 200 to 600 feet below the level of the 
divides. There is little level ground except the flood plains of the 
streams. The general elevation ranges between 800 and 900 feet, but 
in Brown county the upland obtains its most rugged form and high- 
est elevation, 1148 feet, in \\'ecd Patch Hill. 




Fig. 376.— Donaldson's cave, Lawrence county. 



Fig. 377.— Interior of Marengo cave. 



The middle portion of the upland is underlain by porous and solu- 
ble limestones and is known as the "sink-hole region." The surface 
is pitted with depressions which have no surface outlet for drainage. 
The majority are gently sloping, funnel-shaped basins, from a few 
yards to several acres in area, formed by the drainage of surface 
water through a central opening into an underground stream. Some 
have nearly vertical walls, 40 to 70 feet high, and have been pro- 
duced by the falling in of the roof of a cavern. These are popularly 
known as "gulfs." The drainage is largely subterranean, some 
streams, like Lost River in Orange county, disappearing and reap- 
pearing upon the surface at irregular intervals. Many of these under- 
ground channels have been greatly enlarged and then abandoned by 
the streams and can now be traversed for long distances. Wyan- 
dotte and Marengo caves in Crawford county are among the largest 



X SUPPLEMENT 

in America. The former has been explored for 23 miles, and con- 
tains rooms 70 to 185 feet high and from 200 to 600 feet wide (Fig. 
132). 

The Evansville Lowland slopes from the border of the Middle Up- 
land gently to the Wabash, and is underlain by the soft shales and 
sandstones of the coal measures. Its surface is smooth or gently 
rolling and traversed by the wide valleys of the Ohio, Wabash, and 
White rivers, which converge towards their junction at the south- 
west corner of the state. 




Fig. 378.— A ravine in the central plain, Parke county. 



Glacial Drift. — A little more than lialf of Southern Indiana is 
thinly covered by the deposit of an early ice sheet, as shown by the 
course of the glacial boundary on the map (p. vi). This ice sheet, held 
back by the Southern Upland, wrapped its edge around the escarp- 
ments and pushed on across the Ohio River in the east and nearly 
to the mouth of the Wabash in the west. The older drift is finer 



GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA xi 

grained, more compact, and more deeply weathered than the newer 
drift on the north, from which it may he readily distins^uishcd by its 
reddish-brown color. On the uplands it is made up mostly of clay 
from ID to 30 feet thick; in the valleys of sand and gravel from 25 
to 50 feet thick. Near the Wabash River the clay is overlain by a 
fine yellow or ash-colored silt, from 5 to 10 feet thick, called loess 
(p. 144) and white clay. The drift sheet is not heavy enough to 
hide the original features, but helps to heighten the contrast between 
the smoothness of the lowlands it covers and the roughness of the 
ujilands from which it is absent. Chestnut Ridge, in Jackson county, 
8 miles long and from 50 to 170 feet high, is the only conspicuous 
marginal moraine of the older ice sheet in Indiana. 

On account of its large area of rong-h surface and poor 
soil. Southern Indiana, as a whole, is less productive and has 
fewer towns and railroads and a sparser population than the 
rest of the state. 




Fig. 379.— Glacial plain and moraine, Montgomery county. 

The Central Drift Plain.— Nearly two thirds of Indiana is 
covered with a sheet of glacial drift so heavy as generally to 
bury out of sight the irregularities of the bed-rock surface. 
The central part has thus been converted into a smooth and 



SUPPLEMENT 




Fig. 380. — Map of Erie moraines. 



nearly level plain, the surface of a mantle of gravelly clay 
from 100 to 200 feet thick. It is bonnded on the south by 
a nearly continuous marginal ridge called the Shelbyville 
moraine, and on the north by the valleys of the St. Joseph and 
Wabash rivers from northern Allen county to southern War- 
ren. The streams have cut their channels a little way into the 
drift, and their broad, shallow valleys form almost the only 
relief to the monotony of the landscape. The plain is traversed 
by a complex series of moraines which mark the successive, 
halts in the retreat of the ice sheet. They consist of ridges and 
belts of knolls and mounds usually too broad and gentle in 
slope to be conspicuous, but notable in their influence upon the 
courses of streams. 

The Central Plain comprises the richest farming lands in 
the state and consequently possesses more Vv'ealth and a denser 
population than the other regions. 

The Northern Moraine and Lake Region. —The portion of 
the state north of the Wabash River is more varied than the 



GEOCRAPIIY OF INDIANA xni 

Central riaiii. The greater part of this reg-ion is occupied hy 
niassixe and rugged moraines, the beds of extinct glacial lakes, 
and sand}^ outwash plains. 

The Calumet District. — The head of Lake Michigan is hordcrcd hy 
a strip of coastal desert 5 to 15 miles wide. A part of it was once 
covered by the waters of glacial Lake Chicago, and it is now oc- 



Fig. 381. — Drifting Sand Dune, 200 feet high, near Michigan City. 

cupied hy beach ridges and sand dunes, which have been blown up by 
the winds. The district is bounded by the Valparaiso moraine, which 
is 7 to 15 miles wide and from 100 to 200 feet above the level of Lake 
Michigan. 

The Kankakee plain is a region of extensive marshes with gravel 
plains and low ridges of sand around its eastern and southern bor- 
ders. It is rimmed by moraines, and during the melting away of the 
ice lobes was the site of many shallow lakes into which sediment was 
washed from the surrounding ice. Its southern part is traversed by 
the Iroquois moraine, which crosses Jasper and Newton counties. 

The Maxinknckcc moraine occupies a large part of jMarshall and 
St. Joseph counties and presents a moderately diversified surface of 
knolls and basins. One of the most complex moraines in America 
extends from Cass county to the northeastern corner of the state. 
The breadth of the main body varies from 5 to 25 miles, with numer- 



xiv SnrPLEMF.NT 

ons spurs and branches fo the northwest. The thickness of the drift 
is nowhere less than 200 feet and in some places reaches 500 feet. 
Its surface varies from slightly rolling to the steepest and sharpest 
possible knobs and gravel hills. The highest and most rugged por- 
tions occur in the counties of Kosciusko, Whitley, Noble, Lagrange, 
Elkhart, Dekalb, and Steuben. 

Morainic Lakes, —The great morainic belts of northern Indiana 
abound in undrained hollows and basins which are occupied by ponds, 
lakes, and marshes. Some counties contain 100 lakes each, and the 
whole number in the state cannot be less than 1000. Most of them 
are small, ranging from an area of a few acres up to a few hundred 
acres. Turkey or Wawasee Lake, in Kosciusko county, with an area 
of 5.66 square miles, Lake Maxinkuckee, in Marshall county, with 
an area of 2.97 square miles, and James Lake, ii' Stcuiien county, 
with an area of 2.6 square miles, are the largest. Seventeen have an 
area of more than one square mile each. Their depth seldom ex- 
ceeds 100 feet. 

Many of the smaller lakes have rounded cauldron-shaped basins 
known as "kettle holes," "potash kettles," and "soap dishes." The 
larger lakes are long and narrow or complex in outline and made 
up of connected kettle holes, channels, and irregular depressions 
similar to the surface of the moraines around them. More than 
half of the original lake basins have been filled with wash from the 
hills, deposits from springs, the growth of aquatic vegetation, and the 
shells of animals, and have thus been converted into marshes or muck 
meadows. These processes are slowly filling the existing lakes, which 
are generally bordered by marsh lands (pp. 125-128). The combi- 
nation of hills, valleys, and lakes forms a landscape unsurpassed in 
picturesque beauty between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. This 
region attracts many summer visitors. 

The eastern part of Allen county is occupied by a very level plain, 
once the bed of glacial Lake Maumee, which had its outlet at Fort 
Wayne, westward, into the present Wabash valley at Huntington. 
The former beaches (p. 129) of this lake are known as the Hicks- 
ville and Van Wert ridges, and have long been used as naturally 
graded roadways. 

Drainage. —The Ohio River (pp. 107-108) forms the 
southern bottndary of Indiana for about 350 miles. As far 
down as Cannelton its vahey is from one to two miles wide, 
and is bounded by bluffs from 300 to 500 feet high. At Madi- 
son it bends southward along the face of the Limestone escarp- 



GEOGRArnV OF TXDTAMA 



XV 




Fig. 382.— Clifty Falls, on a tributary of the Ohio. 



mcnt, and at New Albany is again deflected by the Knobstone 
escarpment. In the vicinity of New Albany and Louisville 
it crosses a belt of soft shale, and its valley widens to four 
miles, with bluffs only 150 feet high. 



xvi . SUPPLEMENT 

Here a heavy deposit of gravel, on which the city of Louis- 
ville stands, has filled the original channel, and the river now 
flows across a rock shelf, over which it falls 2t, feet in a little 
more than two miles, forming the rapids called the Falls of 
the Ohio. Below Cannelton. in crossing the softer rocks of 
the Evansville Lowland, the valley widens to 5 or 10 miles, 
and the bluffs are low. The Ohio is subject to great floods. 
the variation in depth of water at Lawrenceburg being more 
than 70 feet. It is navigable most of the year for vessels 
drawing six feet of water. 

Between the mouth of the Great Miami and the mouth of the 
Wabash, the Ohio has no large tributaries from Indiana. From the 
Cincinnati and New Albany Lowlands and the Southern Upland the 
streams descend from 300 to 500 feet in a course of from 10 to 20 
miles. Their valleys are generally deep and narrow, but waterfalls are 
few. The most notable ones are in Jefferson and Ripley counties, 
where the streams descend the Limestone escarpment. Here Clifty 
Creek falls about 70 feet, forming the highest cataract iii the state. 

The \\"abash River is the great artery of Lidiana, which it 
traverses for more than 400 miles. With its tributaries it 
drains two thirds of the state. The preglacial Wabash had for 
its headwaters the St. Joseph and St. ]\Iarys and was the out- 
let of Lake Maumee. Its former valley between Fort Wayne 
and Huntington, abandoned by the river, forms an easy pass 
for canal and railroad from Lake Erie to northern Indiana. 

The Wabash River has had a complex history, and its valley 
presents a corresponding variety of features and stages of 
development. From its source to Huntington the stream fol- 
lows the outer face of the Wabash moraine and the \'alley 
is very young, being but a shallow trench in the drift, scarcely 
wider than the stream. Between Huntington and Delphi it 
crosses a belt of limestone, which forms in many places island 
buttes, terraces, and steep bluffs. Below the mouth of the 
Tipi)ecanoe, the river occupies a large preglacial valley, cut 
through shales and sandstones, and half filled with massive 



GEOCRArriV OF INDIANA 



xvn 




Fi£- 383.— Falls, Shades of Death, on a tributary of the Wabash. 



terraces of sand and jsj-ravel (Fig". 20). Below tlie Slielbv- 
ville moraine, the Wabash valley varies in width from 6 to 
15 miles and resembles tliat of the lower Ohio and Missis- 
sippi (Figs. 31, 32, 75. 76). The flood plain is bordered by 
terraces; oxbow bends, cutofifs. and bayous abound, and the 
meanders of the stream increase its length to 225 miles 
(Figs. 97, 98). 



xviii SUPPLEMENT 

Tlie Wabash was formerly navigated as far up as Lafayette, 
and steamers still reach Terre Haute. The improvement of 
the lower river to create and maintain a navigable channel is a 
project under investigation and may be accomplished in the 
near future. 

Of the northern tributaries of the Wabash, the Eel River follows 
a direct course parallel with the great moraine, and was a channel 
of drainage along the margin of the ice sheet. The Tippecanoe winds 
about among the hills of Kosciusko and Fulton counties, descending 
from one lake or marsh to another, into the Kankakee plain, turns 
southward across the old lake bed and cuts a deep, meandering valley 
to the Wabash. The Salamonie and Mississinewa show remarkable 
parallelism with the upper Wabash and St. Marys, due to the fact 
that these four rivers are guided by a series of parallel moraines. 
Deer Creek and the three forks of Wild Cat Creek drain a belt of 
thick drift and touch bedrock only near their mouths. Sugar Creek 
has cut a gorge through the sandstones of Montgomery and Parke 
counties 250 feet deep, presenting a variety of picturesque bluffs, 
glens, and falls, of which those at the Shades of Death and Bloom- 
ingdale are the most celebrated (Fig. 383). 

The West Fork of White River is second in length and vol- 
ume to the Wabash, which it resembles in many ways. /\fter 
following the moraine as far as Muncie, it flows southwest- 
ward through the Central Plain and the Evansville Lowland in 
a broad shallow valley. The many tributaries of the East Fork 
drain a part of the Central Plain and most of the New Albany 
Lowland. The main stream does not follow the lowland to 
the Ohio, but turns westward and cuts across the upland in a 
deep and narrow valley and joins the West Fork. 

The Whitewater River rises in the same upland as the White, but 
flows directly southward to the Great Miami and Ohio ; consequently 
it has an average fall of about eight feet to the mile. At Richmond 
it has cut a gorge into the lower shales 100 feet deep. The lower 
part of its valley contains heavy deposits of gravel washed from the 
moraine at its head. 

The area in the northwest drained directly to Lake Michigan is 
small and traversed by the Calumet River. This stream is peculiar 
in that it flows westward parallel with the lake shore about 40 miles 



CEOGRAPFIY OF INDIANA xix 

and then flows back eastward about 20 miles to its nioutli. It resembles 
an artificial canal more than a natural stream. The Kankakee and 
Iroquois rivers drain the flat outwash plain westward to the Illinois. 
Their fall is so slight that their current is scarcely perceptible, and 
their waters spread out over the marshes, forming shallow lakes 
without permanent or definite boundaries. This region is a famous 
haunt of ducks and other aquatic birds and is attractive to the sports- 
man. 

The St. Joseph which enters northwestern Indiana from Michigan, 
was originally the headwaters of the Kankakee, but now at South 
P>end turns abruptly northward to Lake Michigan. The St. Joseph 
which enters Indiana from the northeast, and the St. Marys, which 
comes from the southeast, were once tributaries of the Wabash, but 
now turn back sharply at Fort Wayne to form the Maumee, which 
mcanilers over tlie old lake plain to Lake Erie. 

Mineral Resources.— Indiana includes 6500 square miles of 
coal field. Bitiiuiinons coal is mined in eighteen counties, of 
Avhich \'igo, Sullivan, Greene, Vermillion, and Knox, in the 
order named, are most productive. There are twenty distinct 
beds or seanTS, of which nine are from 3 to 1 1 feet thick and 
workable. The coal is mined sometimes by tunneling into a 
hillside, but oftener by shafts several hundred feet deep, some 
of which reach three or more seams. The most improved 
machinery for mining, hoisting, and pumping is generally used, 
and many mines are lighted and operated by electricity. The 
output in 1910 was 18,389,815 tons, valued at $20,813,000. 
The number of men employed was 21,878. The production of 
coal is now three times as great as it was ten years ago, the 
increase beiiig due largely to the failure of nattiral gas. 

Clay and Shale. — The value of products made from clay and shale 
is second only to that of coal. Common brick and tile arc made from 
glacial and other clays in all parts of the state. The shales and fire 
clays of the coal measures are mixed and burned to make sewer pipe, 
drain tile, and paving and building brick of many varieties. The oc- 
currence of coal, shale, and clay on the same ground has led to the 
establishment of extensive clay works at Terre Haute, Brazil, Mecca, 
and other localities. The total value of clay products in 1910 was 
about $8,000,000. 



XX • SUPPLEMENT 

Portland Cement. — The increasing use of concrete for bridge and 
house construction (p. 298) has led to the extensive manufacture of 
Portland cement. It is made by mixing, burning, and grinding lime- 
stone and clay or furnace slag in proper proportions. Suitable ma- 
terials are widely distributed in Indiana, and cement is made from the 
upper and lower limestones, the coal measure rocks, and deposits of 
marl in the glacial lakes. The total product in 1910 was 7,000,000 
barrels. 




Fig. 384.— Oolitic limestone quarry. 



Building 5"/o»c.— Workable quarries of building stone are well 
distributed all over the state except in the northern part. A belt of 
Mansfield sandstone suitable for foundations and bridge piers lies 
along the eastern borders of the coal field. The lower crystalline lime- 
stones are extensively quarried from the Ohio to the upper Wabash, 
much of it being burned for quicklime. The Bedford or oolitic lime- 
stone extending from Washington to Putnam county is one of the 
best building stones in the world. The beds are sometimes 50 feet 
thick, so that blocks of any desired size can be quarried. When fresh 
it can be easily sawn or turned in a lathe, and it seasons into a hard 
and durable stone. It is in demand for the finest buildings in New 
York, Chicago, New Orleans, and other American cities, and is even 
exported to Europe. The value of the output of Indiana quarries in 
19 10 was $4,777,000. 



GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA 




Fig- 385.— An oil well, Jay county. 



Petroleum and Natural Gas. — T\\c once famous oil and gas fields 
of east central Indiana are no longer important factors in the re- 
sources of the state. Very deep wells yielding both oil and gas have 
been bored in Pike, Gibson, Greene, and Sullivan counties, but the 
supply is neither large nor permanent. The oil production of 1904 
was 11,000,000 barrels; that of 1910, a little over 2,000,000. The 
value of natural gas produced in 1903 was $7,000,000; in 1910, 
$1,700,000. The discovery and use of gas was a powerful stimulus 
to manufacture, the effects of which are still evident. 



SUPPLEMENT 



K^:^.'-:?-^{^^?^'^< 









^fc^ 












r.F.or.RArilY of INniAXA xxiii 

Climate. —Indiana is near the middle of the American heU 
of cold winters and hot summers (p. i8i), and has a large 
range of temperature. It lies in the track of the cyclonic 
storms which sweep across the continent (pp. 204-206), and 
is subject to great and frequent changes of weather. The 
mean annual temperature, under the general control of lati- 
tude, varies from 48° in the north to 57° in the south, but 
there is a relatively cool area on the highest land and a rela- 
tively warm area along the lower Wabash (JMg. 386). The 
average for July ranges between ^2" and 78°, for Januarv 
between 24° and 2^6°. Extreme temperatures of 106° and 
— 20° occur. The length of the growing season, or i)eri()d 
l)etween killing frosts, averages about 190 days along the 
Ohio, and 150 days in the north and east. The annual rain- 
fall averages ^f^ inches in the northwest and 42 inches in the 
south (Fig. '}^^'j'). but varies greatly from year to year. It is 
well distriliuted throughout the year, but is heaviest in May 
and June, and lightest in October. 

Much of the summer rain is due to thunderstorms which are local 
in character, bringing rain to one county while an adjoining county 
gets none. Such irregularity of distril)ution is the cause of occasional 
droughts which affect some localities, buta serious deficiency of rain- 
fall throughout the state in the growing season is of rare occurrence. 
Violent storms of wind, rain, and hail are not infrequent in the hot 
season, and tornadoes (p. 208), such as that which destroyed a part 
of Terre Haute on March 23, 1913, are liable to visit some part of 
the state any year. Heavy spring rains with melting snow cause 
high water in the rivers and bring some distress and destruction of 
property to the lowlands. The disastrous flood of March, 1913, with 
its accompanying loss of life and damage to bridges, railroads, and 
river towns, was due to the unprecedented rainfall of 6 to 11 inches 
in five days over central Indiana and Ohio. It has served to set the 
whole community to studying the problems of stream control, flood 
prevention, and human interference with natural channels of drain- 
age. 

The summers are long and warm enough and the rainfall 
sufficient to insure to Indiana, in an average year, a large yield 



xxiv SUPPLEMENT 

of a considerable variety of crops. The winters are long and 
severe enough to make necessary substantial provision for 
food and shelter for men and animals, compelling a degree of 
foresight, energy, and thrift. The climate, by its changes and 
contrasts, is highly stimulating to human effort. 

Vegetation. — Temperatures and rainfall intermediate be- 
tween the extremes of the upper IMissouri and the lower Mis- 
sissippi regions, a position lying across both the prairie and 
glacial borders, and the absence of barriers on all sides, place 
Indiana in an area of transition where northern, southern, 
eastern, and western floras overlap and intermingle. The re- 
sult is that there are more than 2000 native species of plants 
growing in the state. Originally about one eighth of its area, 
lying chiefly in the northwest, was prairie and marsh. The 
rest of the state was covered with a heavy growth of summer 
forest (p. 232 and Fig. 192), composed of many species of 
oak, walnut, maple, beech, hickory, ash, elm, sycamore, cotton- 
wood, tulip, gum, linden, and chestnut. The pine and cypress 
occur in the south. 

In no portion of the United States could deciduous trees be found 
of larger size, or in greater variety, than in the lower Wabash valley. 
The pioneer settlers accomplished the almost incredible labor of fell- 
ing the forest and clearing the ground for crops. This was accom^ 
plished in about two generations, and the people were thoroughly 
trained in the principles and practice of anti-forestry. ]\Iuch of the 
timber was manufactured into vehicles, implements, and furniture, a 
process which is still going on. Within a century the virgin forest 
has been nearly destroyed, and the growing scarcity of timber is 
demonstrating the importance of reforestation. 

The problems of forest conservation, involving the proper 
care of woodlots, cutting without waste, and the replanting of 
land of little value for agriculture, are as pressing in Indiana 
as in any state, and are being studied by the State Board of 
Forestry. An experiment station of 2000 acres is used to 
determine and demonstrate the best methods of timber culture. 
Efforts are made through the press, schools, farmers' insti- 
tutes, official bulletins and reports, and other agencies, to inter- 



GEOGRAniY OF INDIANA xxv 

est and educate the people in the scientific and economic use of 
the two or three niilHon acres of woodland which remain. 

Soils and Agriculture.— The most valuahle of all the re- 
sources of Indiana lies in the soils, of which the state possesses 
a considerable variety (p. vi). The most extensive of these 
is the glacial clay. It consists of "the grist of the glacial mill" 
derived from the disintegration, grinding, and thorough mix- 
ture of many varieties of minerals and rocks, and is rich in all 
the requisites of plant life. The pure clay is tough, compact, 
and difficult to work, but it is almost everywhere mixed with 
lo per cent or more of sand, pebbles, and boulders which 
modify these unfavorable conditions. 

The glacial drift suffers from the disadvantage of poor 
drainage. The slopes are so gentle, the drainage systems so 
immature, and the drift so compact that a large part of the 
surface is occupied by lakes, marshes, and land which needs 
underdraining. Perhaps no state owes more to artificial drain- 
age. Thousands of miles of open ditches and tile drains 
have greatly increased the productiveness of the land. As is 
clearly shown in the maps (p. vi, and Figs. 388, 389), it is the 
glacial clay which produces most of the crops of corn, wheat, 
and oats for which the state is famous. 

The sandy soils of the lake regions and outwash plains are inferior 
for general farming, but are well adapted to potatoes, small fruits, 
and vegetables. The muck soils of the marshes, when properly drained, 
are unequaled for the production of celery, onions, and peppermint. 
The silt or loess of the older drift is a very fine sand overlying the 
glacial clay. It is easily cultivated, and generally produces fair crops 
of wheat, corn, oats, and clover. 

In the unglaciated arca^ the soils are residual ; that is, they have 
been produced by the disintegration of the underlying bed rocks, and 
vary in character with them. The soils of the knobstone arc proba- 
bly the poorest in the state, but are valued for pastures and orchards. 
The limestone soils are generally a stiff clay of deep brown or red 
color, the residue of the rock from which nearly all the lime has been 
removed by leaching. They produce wheat, blue grass, timothy, 
clover, and alfalfa. 

The sandstone is generally too rugged for successful farming, and 



SUPPLEMENT 





GEOCRAniY OF INDIANA xxvii 

should be used chiefly for tiinhcr cuhnrc- and dairyinp^. The soils of 
the coal measures are variable, da, and loess heiuj; predominant, and 
are suitable for stock farming and fruit growing. Alluvial soils de- 
posited by the overflow of streams are extensive on the bottom lands 
along the Ohio, Wabash, and White rivers. Their fertility is re- 
newed nearly every year, and they produce large crops of corn. The 
heavy sand and gravel terraces or benches along the lower Wabash 
ar-j unexcelled for wheat. 

The United States Department of Agriculture and the Indiana 
Department of Geology and Natural Resources have completed a soil 
sut-vey of more than half the counties in the state. The reports of 
these surveys contain the best available information as to the topog- 
raphy, structure, drainage, water sup])ly. and agricultural possibili- 
ties of the areas which they cover. Copies may be obtained at little 
or no cost by application to the Dep?.rtments. 

The .snicx^th surface and fertile soils of the glacial drift, the 
long, warm growing season, and the ahundant rainfall are the 
controlHng geographic iniluences wliich not only favor but 
compel the high rank of the state in agriculture and stock rais- 
ing. The staple crops in order of their value are corn, wheat, 
iiay, and oats, the greater part of which, except the wheat, is 
fed to stock on the farms where they grow. Potatoes stand 
fifth in rank and are largely grown in the northern moraine 
region. In the Ohio River counties the acreage of tobacco has 
increased i88 per cent in ten years, giving the weed sixth place 
in total value (Fig. 389). The discussions of these crops 
given on pp. 271-274, 286-287, 360-365 apply with obvious 
limitations to Indiana. 

The corn belt of Indiana, as shown in Fig. 388, is decidedly 
localized in the Central Plain, only seven counties outside its 
limits producing more than 5000 bushels per s([uare mile. Ben- 
ton. Clinton, Tipton. Boone. Shell)y, and Rush counties pro- 
duced more than 10.000 bushels per square mile in 1909. The 
wheat belt (Fig. 388) is more equally distributed in the three 
physiographic regions of the state. The banner wheat county is 
Pose3% with over 3000 bushels per square mile. Oat crops of more 
than 1500 bushels per square mile are confined, with a single 
excc])ti(Mi, to the counties in the northern half of the state, 



SUPPLEMENT 





GEOGRAFMrV OF INDIANA xxix 

anionj^ wliich Warren ami White lead with more than 4000 
bushels ( F\g. 389). Hay is more evenly distributed over the 
state than any other crop. Nineteen counties produce more than 
100 tons per square mile, of which only four are in Southern 
Indiana. Orchard fruits are grown on a large scale in the 
extreme north and in one county on the Ohio River. Grapes 
and small fruits are about equally divided between the northern 
region and the extreme south. .Ml these fruits can be success- 
fully grown in any part of the state and would prove profitable 
on soils nnsnited to corn and ^^•heat. 

Domestic Animals. —Among domestic animals swine ex- 
ceed all others coml)ined (omitting" fowls) in number, and are 
naturally most numerous in the corn belt (Fig. 390). Rush 
and Montgomery counties lead with o\-er 100,000 each. Cattle 
stand second among domestic animals in value; and numbers 
above 15,000 per county prevail over the Central Plain and 
northern moraine region. The number and distribution of 
sheep correspond closely with those of cattle. The number of 
horses is relatively small, but their total value exceeds that of 
all other animals combined. They are most numerous in the 
corn and oats belt (Fig. 391), while in Southern Indiana their 
place is largely taken by mules, which endure heat better, and 
are used extensively in coal mines. Domestic fowls are nu- 
merous in all parts of the state, and have a total value one third 
that of swine. 

Farms. — In 1910, 92.3 per cent of the land area of the state 
was in farms, and 79.5 per cent was improved. The size of 
the average farm was 98.8 acres, and the average value of 
farm lands $62.36 per acre, an increase of 96 per cent in ten 
years. The total value of farm property was $1,809,000,000, 
an increase of 84.9 per cent in ten years. The total value of 
farm products was above $340,000,000, an increase in ten 
years of 66.7 per cent. 

All statistics of agriculture combine to show the importance 
and value of a heavy coating of glacial drift, and the relative 
inferiority of residual and loess soils. The resultant of all the 



SUPPLEMENT 





GKOCRAIMIY ()!• IX DIANA xxxi 

factors may he suninicd u\) in the \aliie of farm lands shown 
in Fig. 3C7J. In Southern Inchana it averages ahout $40 an 
acre (in the unglaciated i)ortion $30), on the Central Plain 
about $70. and in the Xorthern Region, which suffers some 
disadvantage in having more sand, gravel, and marsh, about 
$65. The increase in \alue of farm lands in ten years has 
been about 50 per cent greater in the glacial drift than in the 
driftless area. The average annual \alue of farm products is 
more than $5000 per square mile in the Central Plain, about 
$4000 in the Xorthern Region, and about $3000 in Southern 
Indiana. If natural instead of political boundaries were 
drawn Southern Indiana would be included in the same di- 
vision with Kentucky, the Central Plain with Ohio, and the 
Northern Region in part with southern Michigan and in part 
with Illinois. 

Manufactures. —For three (|uarters of a century Indiana 
was predominantly agricultural. Manufactures were gener- 
ally confined to domestic raw materials, such as clay and tim- 
ber products, foodstuffs, and distilled liquors, and were 
distributed in accordance with local supply and transportation 
facilities. The discovery of natural gas in 1887 marks the 
beginning of the transition to the present period, when the 
total value of manufactures is twice as great as that of 
farm products. The supply of apparently unlimited fuel in its 
most available form and at a nominal cost proved a strong 
attraction for capital. Conditions were favorable for the suc- 
cess of almost any industry, but especially of those which re- 
quire power and heat, such as the manufacture of glass, tin 
plate, foundry and machine shop products, and finished steel 
goods. The "boom" was of course strongly localized, but 
within the gas belt was generally diffused. A hundred acres 
of farm land, provided with a switch from a railroad, was 
sufficient to furnish facilities for the largest plant, with cheap 
and healthful homes for the laborers. Thus scores of indus- 
trial villages sprang up from nothing. At the same time sleepy 
rural towns multiplied population by ten and were trans- 



xxxii SUPPLEMENT 

formed into cities with metropolitan conveniences and airs. 
In twenty years the gas was practically exhausted. Plants and 
villages were abandoned. Houses were torn down for fuel or 
dismembered and transported to be set up again in anothei 
place. The diffused rural industries largely ceased to exist ; 
but the largest and strongest towns and cities are able to hold 
their own, and by importation of coal their manufactures con- 
tinue to flourish. Their gains promise to be in a large measure 
permanent. Many plants were removed across the state to the 
coal fields, and in the case of those that did not go to the coal, 
the coal went to them. The final adjustment increased rather 
than diminished the total manufactures and distributed them 
more widely. 

That the growth of manufactures is permanent is apparent from 
the fact that tlie total value of manufactured products in the state in 
1914 was $730,795,000, an increase of 85 per cent in ten years. The 
leading products, in order of their value, were iron and steel, meats, 
foundry and machine shop products, cars, flour and grist mill prod- 
ucts, distilled liquors, automobiles, carriages and wagons, furniture, 
lumber and timber, books and other printed matter, glass, canned 
goods, agricultural implements, bread, malt liquors, and cement, 
each of which had a value exceeding $10,000,000. All of these ex- 
cept iron, glass, and books are closely related to the home supply 
of raw material in the past or present. In most cases it is now neces- 
sary to bring in materials from outside the state. 

The location of industries is determined chiefly by the 
sources of power, now almost entirely coal, facilities for trans- 
portation, and labor supply (p. 318). Therefore the principal 
manufacturing districts are in or near the coal fields, in the 
gas belt, at railroad centers like Indianapolis, and on Lake 
Michigan. Industrial plants are usually established near a 
large city, to which they add population. As the city grows, it 
attracts new plants, and thus manufacturing and urban growth 
stimulate each other in a cumulative manner. 

Water Power. — AMiile Indiana is not without water power, 
this resource now plays but a small part in the industrial life of 
the state. Indiana streams have generally wide valleys, gentle 



r.E()(,K Al'in' OF INDIANA 



sl(>i)es, and variable vciliinie, conditions which arc unfaxorahlc 
for the utilization of power (j)]). loi, 315-317). 

The main stream t)f (he W'ahasli is practically wortlilcss for power 
on account of irregular discharge, perhaps due to removal of the 
forest. .\t Logansport its maximum f]o\v is 200 times its minimum. 




Fig- 394.— Hydroelectric power plant at Williams. 

East White River is utilized at Williams to produce electric power 
for the Bedford quarries, and the West White at Noblesville. The 
Whitewater has the advantage of rapid fall which is used at Con- 
nersville and Brookville. The most valuable water powers are 
in the Northern Lake Region, on account of the natural storage 
basins which equalize the discharge. They are developed at Goshen, 
Elkhart, IMishawaka, and South Bend. The Eel is utilized at Logans- 
port, and the Tippecanoe at Monticello. Hundreds of small water 
powers in all parts of the state, once very important, have been aban- 
doned. The use of hydroelectric power will make some of these 
again profitable and lead to the development of new sites. 

Transportation and Circulation. —Indiana has three great 
natural routes of travel and circulation: Lake Michigan, the 
Maumee-W'abash vallev. and the Ohio River. 



xxxiv SLU'PLEMKNT 

Indian and French canocmcn sometimes cnt across the northwest 
corner from the St. Joseph of Lake Michigan to the Kankakee at 
Sonth Bend. More frequently they ascended the Maumee from Lake 
Erie, carried across at Fort Wayne to the Wabash and had easy pad- 
dHng to the lower Ohio. It was on this route that the first white 
trading posts were established at Fort Wayne, Lafayette, and Vin- 
cenncs. The Ohio River, from its size and connections, was the chief 
natural artery of human circulation. The Kanawha, Kentucky, and 
Greene on one side linked with the Whitewater and Wabash on the 
other to form north-south lines of communication. It was by means 
of the Ohio system that the first pioneer settlers came into Indiana 
in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, coming from the south- 
ern states and ascending the northern tributaries as far as the streams 
would float them. They built their homes, mills, and towns in the 
valleys facing the watercourses, while the uplands between were left 
as literal "backwoods,"' the Saxon equivalent of the modern hinter- 
land. Steamboats began to run between Pittsburgh and New Or- 
leans as early as 1811 and on the Wabash in 1823. The first im- 
proved wagon roads were built as feeders to this system, of which 
the most important was the Michigan road, extended in the period 
1828-1834 from Madison on the Ohio to Michigan City on the lake. 
New Orleans was the seaport, outlet, and market of the community, 
to which produce was floated on flatboats, the crew often returning 
on foot. 

When the national government found it necessary to tie its north- 
west territories to the old states by a highway, Indiana lay across the 
path, and the national road from Cumberland on the Potomac reached 
Richmond on the eastern border of the state in 1827 and Terre Haute 
on the western border in 1834, traversing the state nearly along its 
middle line. 

When the waterway so effectively opened through the Erie Canal 
in 1825 was to be continued westward, the old canoe route of the 
]\Iaumee-Wabash was converted into the Wabash and Erie canal, 
which reached Fort Wayne in 1832, Lafayette in 1841, Terre Haute 
in 1849, and Evansville in 1854. The canal brought a tide of settlers 
from New England and New York into northern Indiana. In 1830 
five sixths of the population of the state lived in the southern coun- 
ties, in 1850 one half were in the canal zone, and in i860 there were 
twice as many on the Wabash as on the Ohio. The main channels 
of trade were changed from New Orleans to New York. 

The first railroad belonged to the southern circulating sys- 
tem. It started from Madison in 1839 and reached Indian- 
apoHs in 1847. When the railroads began to extend westward 



c;I':()(;rai'iiv oi'' Indiana xx.w 

from the Appalachians, attain Iiuhana hiy across the ])ath. 
About 1850 the picsciU VaiulaHa Line began to parallel the 
national road from Pittsburgh, and in 1852 crossed the state. 
A few years later the Wabash Railroad followed the northern 
canoe and canal route from Toledo, while the Ohio and Mis- 
sissippi crossed the southern hills from Cincinnati, all on their 
way to St. Louis. Then began (he process, now nearly com- 
pleted, by which homesteads and towns turned their backs 
upon the streams and faced toward the railroads. Of the 
ri\erain centers of population, many disappeared or dwindled 
to insignificance, and those which remain even now owe their 
ability to keep a respectable place in the census list to their 
railroad connections. In fifty years a score of east-west trunk 
lines ha\-e crossed the state, half of which sweep around the 
head of Lake Michigan to Chicago. A half dozen lines con- 
nect the Ohio with the Great Lakes. The total mileage is 
about 7000. and the various systems with their branches cover 
the state with a network which leaves few places more than ten 
miles from a railroad. The meshes are closest around Li- 
dianapolis and in the Chicago district, and widest in the 
rougher portions of Southern Lidiana. 

The principal cities are now connected by electric inter- 
urban traction lines having their chief centers at Indianapolis, 
Fort ^^'ayne, and Terre Haute (b'ig. 317). These are most 
effective agents in bringing about close relations between the 
url)an and the rural population. Country people are no longer 
isolated, and city people are less cramped for space. Much 
attention has been paid to the improx'ement of wagon roads, 
and 22,000 miles, nearly half the mileage of the state, have 
been graxeled or otherwise improved. 

Surveys have been made for a ship canal connectinj^ Lake Michi- 
gan with the Wabash and another to connect Lake Michigan with 
Lake Erie by way of the Maumee-Wabash gap, and the construction 

of one or both is a possibility of the future. 

Population. —In 1910 Indiana was the ninth state in the 
L'nioii in population, and contained 2.700,876 inhabitants, an 



xxxvi SUrPLKMKNT 

averag-e of 75 to the scjuare mile. The population map (Fig. 
393) shows the innuence of physical conditions upon the dis- 
tribution of population. The rougher portions of Southern 
Indiana, the marshy Kankakee plain, and the high moraines 
have a relatively sparse population. The densest population 
occurs in the urban manufacturing counties, Marion leading 
with 664 per square mile. The central plain contained 48 per 
cent of the population with a density of 89, Southern Indiana 
33 P^^ cent with a density of 65, and the Northern Region 19 
per cent with a density of 66. 

The increase of population of the state in ten years was 7.3 per 
cent, the smallest in its history, and only one third that of the whole 
United States. There was a loss of population in 56 counties, well 
distributed through the state. The largest gain was in Lake (119 
per cent), ]\Iarion, Vigo, St. Joseph, and Greene. The urban terri- 
tory gained 30.5 per cent, and the rural territory lost 5 per cent, in- 
dicating the relative increase of manufactures over agriculture. The 
urban population amounted to 42.4 per cent. 

The native whites of native parentage constituted 79 per cent, 
while less than 6 per cent were foreign born (in Lake county 25 per 
cent), of which 39 per cent were German. The strongest contrast 
in the general character of the people is that which exists between 
the descendants of the immigrants from the South and those from 
New England and New York. No sharp boundary can now be drawn 
between them, but the fortieth parallel or the national road roughly 
separates peoples who plainly differ in language and habits of work, 
life, and thought. 

Cities. — In 1910 the urban poptilation of Indiana resided in 
88 towns and cities of over 2500 inhabitants, of which 20 had 
between 10,000 and 25,000 people, and 5 had over 50,000. 
Those of more than 10,000 population may be divided, accord- 
ing to the natural conditions which have determined their loca- 
tion and growth, into four groups. 

The Ohio River Group. —These cities owe their existence 
and importance primarily to the river, and their fortunes have 
depended largely on the value of that waterway for trans- 
portation. 

Evansz'illc (69,600) is the river port of the Indiana coal 



GEOGRAPHY OF INDIANA xxxvii 

held. Its leadino- manufactures are \]nuv, furniiurc, wagons, 
lumber, and tobacco. Its breweries, slaughtering, meat pack- 
ing, and leather establishments, its foundries and machine 
shops, are also important. The growth of its manufactures is 
indicated by the increase of jj per cent in live years in the 
\alue of the output. On account of good railroad connections 
l^\ans\-ille is independent of ri\er traftic. has increased its 
population i8 per cent in ten years, and holds third place in 
total value of manufactures (1914). 

iVrtt' Albany (20.600) and Jcffcrsonvillc (10,400) are important 
shipping points on the river where railroads cross it to Louisville. 
They barely maintain their population and show a sli^lit decline in 
industries. 

The Wabash River Group. —These cities owe their location 
and early growth to the Mcaumee-Wabash waterway and the 
Wabash and Erie Canal. 

Fort Wayne (63.900). situated upon an old glacial outlet 
(Fig. 113), where goods were formerly carried over from the 
Maumee to the Wabash, very early became an important trad- 
ing and military post. It was the first Indiana town to be 
reached by the Wabash and Rrie Canal, which has since been 
followed by three trunk lines of railroad. It is the center of 
the electric roads of northern Indiana. It manufactures elec- 
trical apj)aratus. hosiery and knit goods, car wheels, oil tanks, 
gas machinery, and pianos. Its population increased 40 per 
cent in ten years, and it stands fifth in value of manufactures. 

Hnniington (10,300), Pern (10.900), and Logansport (19.000) 
owe much of their ]iros])erity to the fact that the Wabash River has 
uncovered l)eds of limestone which are used for building, for quick- 
hme, and tor flux in the blast furnaces of Chicago. They also have 
large railroad repair sho])s. Lafayette (20,100). once the head of 
steamboat navigation, is beautifully situated on the bluffs and ter- 
races of the Wa])ash, and is the seat of Purdue University. 

Tcrrc Haute (58,100) is situated upon a high terrace of the 
Wabash River in the center of the coal field. The cheapness 

of fuel rmd i-ood railroad facilities have attracted manufac- 



xxxviii SUPPLEMENT 

tures. The bottom lands of the river furnish large supplies of 
corn for distilleries, breweries, and flour and hominy mills. 
Shale and coal on the same ground are used in large plants for 
the manufacture of sewer pipe and i)aving brick. Glass, enameled 
ware, iron, paper, coke, chemicals, and greenhouse fruits are 
among the most valuable products. It is the seat of the State 
Normal School and Rose Polytechnic Institute. Its increase 
of population was 56 per cent in ten years, and it stands sixth 
in total value of manufactures. 

Vinccnncs (14,900), opposite the mouth of the Embarras, where 
the Wabash valley is 15 miles wide, is the oldest town in Indiana. 
It was founded as a French trading post about 1720, and was the prin- 
cipal town of the Wabash region for more than a century. It was 
captured by the English in 1763 and by Virginia troops in 1778. 
From 1800 to 1813 it was the capital of Indiana Territory. It has 
distilleries, breweries, rolling mills, and glass factories, and is the 
business center of the Illinois oil field. 

The Lake Michigan Group.— These cities owe their impor- 
tance to the transportation facilities of Lake Michigan and the 
numerous railroads which pass its southern end. Some of them 
belong commercially to the great urban district of Chicago. 

South Bend (53.700) grew up at the site of water power on 
the St. Joseph, which is still used l)ut has been outgrown. It 
is most famous for the Studebaker wagon and automobile 
works and for the Oliver plow ^^•orks, each of which is said to 
be the largest establishment of its kind in the world. It also has 
about one hundred other establishments ^\ hich produce sewing- 
machines, toys, woolen goods, \\atches. and other articles. Its 
growth was 50 per cent in ten years, and it is the fourth city in 
the state in value of products. It is the seat of Notre Dame 
University. 

Mishawaka (11,900) adjoins South Bend Its chief industry is the 
manufacture of rubber boots and shoes. 

Elkhart (19,300) shares the water power of the St. Joseph. It 
is famous for the manufacture of brass-l)and instruments, and for 
the printing of almanacs. Laportc (10,500) has large agricultural 



CEOr.RAI'HV C)V INDIAXA xxxix 

implement works. Michigan City (19,000), until recently the only 
Indiana lakcport, i)rocluces cars, chairs, and sandl)ricl\. It is the 
site of the Indiana State Prison. 

The Calumet District. — Nothinj^ more sija^nificant has happened in 
Indiana than the recent rise in industrial importance of the cities 
on the Calumet. A helt of sand dunes, partly fixed and covered with 
scrub oak, partly drifting with the wind, and nearly worthless for 
most i)urposes. seems admirably fitted for industrial uses. A dozen 
trunk lines of railroad and the waterway of the Great Lakes furnish 
rare facilities for transportation. Cheap land, accessibility to iron 
ore from Lake Superior (pp. 369, 370), nearness to coal, petroleum, 
limestone, food supplies (p. 31X), and the great market of Chicago, 
as well as a central position in the Mississippian province, form a 
unique combination. Hammond (20,900), on the southern edge of 
the dunes and adjoining the city of Chicago, includes Lake George 
and Wolf Lake — two shallow lagoons that oi)en into Lake Michigan. 
Its prominent industries are the manufacture of iron and steel, print- 
ing and ]niblishing, meat packing, and food prejjaration. IVIuting 
(6600) has grown upon the lake shore around the great refinery of 
the Standard Oil Company. East Chicago (19,100), including Indiana 
Harbor, has ten miles of dock frontage on a shij) canal which ex- 
tends four miles inland to the Calumet River. Its industries are 
varied; but a dozen iron and steel plants, chemical works, oil re- 
fineries and lead smelters make it the second city in the state in value 
of manufactured products. 

Gary (16,800), the youngest city in Indiana, owes its existence 
to the United States Steel Corporation, which in 1906 bought 8000 
acres of land adjoining East Chicago. .\n artificial harbor 4000 
feet long and 31 feet deep was constructed. The dunes were leveled, 
the Calumet River was canalized and reversed in How. a complete 
plant was laid out and the site was fitted to it. Twelve blast fur- 
naces are in operation and nineteen additional furnaces are planned. 
Coke ovens furnish 400 car loads a day and gas for 35 engines. 
12,000.000 tons of ore are used annually. Open hearth furnaces, 
rail, billet, ])late. and other mills of sufficient capacity to roll 6.000,000 
tons of steel are provided, as well as cement works to utilize the 
slag. Works for the manufacture of steel tubes, sheet and tin plate, 
bridges, cars, locomotives, .screws and bolts, are among the huge 
plants erected to elaborate the output of metal. Exact statistics 
aliout Gary are not available and are subject to daily change. It 
seems probable that the combined Calumet cities will soon shift 
the manufacturing and population center of Indiana to the northwest 
corner. 



xl SUPPLEMENT 

The Central Group.— The cities on the Central Plain owe 
their importance chiefly to the very rich farming country 
which surrounds them. 

Anderson (22,500), Ehuood (11,000), Marion (19,400), and Mun- 
cic (24,000) are in the gas belt, and during the period of gas al)un- 
dance multiplied their population l)y five or ten. They have survived 
the faikire of gas and are holding their own. They have a large va- 
riety of industries, among which iron and steel, wire, machinery, tools, 
glass, tin plate, and automobiles are prominent. They are clean and 
enterprising cities and their prosperity seems permanent. Kokomo 
(17,000) has increased its population 70 per cent by the growth of 
potteries, glass works, rubber, wire, nail, and mitten factories, and 
large automobile shops, an industry in which it was the pioneer in 
Indiana. Richmond (22,300) was settled largely by the Society of 
Friends and is the seat of Earlham College. It is now noted for the 
manufacture of implements, pianos, carriages, caskets, and furniture, 
and the growing of greenhouse flowers. 

Indianapolis (234,000), the capital and metropolis of In- 
diana, was located near the center of the state in 1820, and is a 
remarkahle example of a city which has flourished without any 
special local advantages. Although situated upon White 
River, it has neither water power nor water transportation. It 
is surrounded by a purely agricultural region, but the coal held 
is within easy reach. Indianapolis is a creation of the railroads, 
and is one of the greatest railroad centers in the United States. 
No less than fifteen trunk lines of steam road and thirteen lines 
of electric road radiate from it in all directions. It is the 
twenty-second city in the country in population, and its increase 
in ten years was 38 per cent. 

As a distributing point it has no rival between the Ohio and the 
Great Lakes or between the Mississippi and the Atlantic coast. This 
makes it a favorable location for manufacturing and for wholesale 
trade. The value of its products is greater than that of the four next 
largest cities combined. Its largest industries are meat packing, 
foundries and machine shops, automobile making, flour milling, print- 
ing and publishing, canning and ])reserving, and furniture making. 
Its central ])Osition and ease of access render it dominant not only in 
industry and trade, but in politics, literature, art, and society. 



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